Four years ago, this was a deserted, undeveloped atoll.
Today, the reef has become Vietnam’s biggest military outpost in the South China Sea.
Vietnam has dramatically accelerated its effort to expand islands and reclaim land in the contested South China Sea since the start of the year to challenge rising Chinese assertiveness, according to satellite imagery and interviews with Vietnamese officials, security analysts and diplomats.
While Vietnam has been enlarging its presence across a remote collection of rocks, reefs and islets called the Spratlys since 2021, the country is on pace this year to create more than 1,000 acres of new land there, more than in any year prior.
Map of the South China Sea
Where Vietnam
is building
islands in the
South China Sea
Where Vietnam is
building islands
in the South
China Sea
Where Vietnam is building islands
Where Vietnam is building islands
Where Vietnam is building islands
Where Vietnam is building islands
Map of the South China Sea showing Chinese claims
Where Vietnam
is building
islands in the
South China Sea
Where Vietnam is
building islands
in the South
China Sea
Where Vietnam is building islands
Where Vietnam is building islands
Where Vietnam is building islands
Where Vietnam is building islands
Not since China carried out its own island-building campaign there a decade ago, turning semi-submerged reefs into sophisticated military bases, has the landscape of the archipelago been so transformed. In just three years, Vietnam has increased its amount of land in the Spratlys tenfold.
Trouble in the South China Sea
Tensions in the South China Sea are more acute than at any time in recent years. As China under President Xi Jinping has grown more aggressive in asserting its claims, a half-dozen other governments have pursued their own security and economic interests in the strategic waters. The United States has urged that disputes be settled based on international law.
Leaders of Vietnam’s communist government have traditionally been muted about its land reclamation drive in the South China Sea, often refusing to explain or acknowledge the effort even in private conversations, said security analysts and diplomats.
But in rare interviews in the capital, Hanoi, five former and current Vietnamese officials said the government has been “consolidating” outposts for the purpose of self-defense, part of a broader strategy to counter security threats “early and from afar.”
“We will resort to every means possible to make sure we can defend and safeguard our legitimate interests in the East Sea,” said Le Dinh Tinh, director general of policy planning in Vietnam’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, using Vietnam’s name for the South China Sea. Vietnam’s activities in the Spratlys are “completely within its legitimate rights,” he added.
Tinh stressed that Vietnam wants a peaceful resolution to its maritime disputes but added that the government is alarmed by the recent escalation of tensions in the South China Sea, particularly between China and the Philippines, which have violently clashed over a shoal within the Spratlys.
Island outposts in the Spratlys
Island outposts in the Spratlys
The largest natural feature in the Spratly Island chain is Itu Aba, which is occupied by Taiwan, but its size was dwarfed by China’s island reclamation projects beginning in 2014 and now by Vietnam’s efforts in island building.
Discovery
Great
Reef
Largest
natural
feature in
the Spratlys.
Added a
runway and
harbor in the
past six years.
Island outposts in the Spratlys
The largest natural feature in the Spratly Island chain is Itu Aba, which is occupied by Taiwan, but its size was dwarfed by China’s island reclamation projects beginning in 2014 and now by Vietnam’s efforts in island building.
Discovery
Great
Reef
Largest
natural
feature in
the Spratlys.
Added a
runway and
harbor in the
past six years.
Island outposts in the Spratlys
The largest natural feature in the Spratly Island chain is Itu Aba, which is occupied by Taiwan, but its size was dwarfed by China’s island reclamation projects beginning in 2014 and now by Vietnam’s efforts in island building.
Largest
natural
feature in
the Spratlys.
Added a
runway and
harbor in the
past six years.
Island outposts in the Spratlys
The largest natural feature in the Spratly Island chain is Itu Aba, which is occupied by Taiwan, but its size was dwarfed by China’s island reclamation projects beginning in 2014 and now by Vietnam’s efforts in island building.
Largest natural
feature in the
Spratlys.
Added a runway
and harbor in the
past six years.
Island outposts in the Spratlys
The largest natural feature in the Spratly Island chain is Itu Aba, which is occupied by Taiwan, but its size was dwarfed by China’s island reclamation projects beginning in 2014 and now by Vietnam’s efforts in island building.
Largest
natural
feature in
the Spratlys.
Added a
runway and
harbor in
the past
six years.
China has long sought to dominate the South China Sea, a strategic, resource-rich waterway that six other governments say belongs in part to them. Under leader Xi Jinping, Beijing has increasingly antagonized and confronted other claimants. Chinese ships have repeatedly harassed Philippine vessels in the disputed waters in recent months, raising the prospect that the United States, which has a mutual defense treaty with Manila, could be drawn into armed conflict.
From 2013 to 2015, China undertook an island-building blitz in the Spratlys, reclaiming about 3,000 acres of land, where it then constructed military bases complete with anti-ship and antiaircraft missile systems, radar domes, and fighter jets.
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In response, Vietnamese officials say, Vietnam built out the small outposts it had been occupying in the Spratlys, dredging and filling in land, fortifying barriers, and erecting new structures.
The most dramatic transformation in recent months has occurred at Barque Canada Reef, a narrow, 18-mile atoll on the southern end of the Spratlys that Vietnam has doubled in size to 492 acres since November. The reef, which once hosted six pillbox-like structures, is now Vietnam’s largest outpost in the Spratlys, wide and long enough to potentially accommodate a 3,000-meter airstrip for large military and transport aircraft, according to an analysis of satellite imagery by the Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative (AMTI) at the D.C.-based Center for Strategic and International Studies.
Explainer of how Barque Canada Reef was built
Vietnam’s Barque Canada Reef has undergone a massive transformation since the government began expanding it in 2022. This satellite image captured by Maxar Technologies on May 11 reveals the resources and techniques required for this undertaking.
Shallow
depth
lagoon
Dredging of sediment has bisected the shallow coral reef in this area.
A road is built out onto the reef, where dredgers extract sand onto trucks.
The first part of the island to be built was
the harbor.
Vietnam has deployed powerful
cutter suction dredgers to accelerate
its land reclamation — the same tools that China used in its island building.
The seawater ponds will most likely be filled in
with dredged sand in the upcoming
months.
Vietnam’s Barque Canada Reef has undergone a massive transformation since the government began expanding it in 2022. This satellite image captured by Maxar Technologies on May 11 reveals the resources and techniques required for this undertaking.
Shallow
depth
lagoon
waters
Dredging of sediment has bisected the shallow coral reef in this area.
A road is built out onto the reef, where land-based dredgers extract sand onto trucks that transport it back onto the island.
The first part of the island to be built was
the harbor.
Possible artillery emplacements for troops and weapons.
Ship pumping sediment through
multiple floating pipelines onto the island.
Vietnam has deployed powerful
cutter suction dredgers to accelerate
its land reclamation — the same tools that China used in its island building.
The seawater ponds will most likely be filled in
with dredged sand in the upcoming
months.
Vietnam’s Barque Canada Reef has undergone
a massive transformation since the government began expanding it in 2022. This satellite image captured by Maxar Technologies on May 11 reveals the resources and techniques required
for this undertaking.
Dredging of sediment has bisected the shallow coral reef in this area. It remains to be seen if Vietnam will complete a channel for vessels to pass through.
A narrow road is built out onto the reef, where land-based dredgers are able to reach out and extract sand onto trucks that transport it back onto the island being built.
Shallow depth
lagoon waters
Among the first parts of the island to be built was this lagoon- facing harbor, along with numerous structures.
A structural
sea wall typically indicates the maximum
extent of island
building for that
particular area.
Possible artillery emplacements for troops and weapons. This type of structure can be found across many of Vietnam's more developed military outposts in the Spratlys.
June 2023
extent
built:
Ship pumping sediment through
multiple floating pipelines onto the island.
Jan. 2024
extent
built:
Cutter
suction
dredger
Vietnam has deployed powerful cutter suction dredgers to accelerate its land reclamation — the same tools that China used in its island building.
Current
length:
3 miles
Cutter suction dredgers cause extensive environmental damage by pumping out large plumes of sediment, which disrupt marine life for extended periods of time.
The seawater
ponds will most
likely be filled in
with dredged sand in the upcoming months.
Once the island is completed, the next phase will most likely involve more structures and infrastructure necessary to house a functional base of operations.
Vietnam’s Barque Canada Reef has undergone a massive transformation since the government began expanding it in 2022.
This satellite image captured by Maxar Technologies on May 11 reveals the resources and techniques required for this undertaking.
Dredging of sediment has bisected the shallow coral reef in this area. It remains to be seen if Vietnam will complete a channel for vessels to pass through.
A narrow road is built out
onto the reef, where land-
based dredgers are able to
reach out and extract
sand onto trucks that
transport it back onto
the island being built.
Shallow depth
lagoon waters
A structural sea wall
typically indicates
the maximum
extent of island
building for that
particular area.
Among the first parts of the island to be built was this lagoon-facing harbor, along with numerous structures.
Possible artillery emplacements for troops and weapons. This type of structure can be found across many of Vietnam’s more developed military outposts in the Spratlys.
June 2023
extent
built:
Ship pumping sediment through
multiple floating pipelines onto the island.
Jan. 2024
extent
built:
Cutter
suction
dredger
Vietnam has deployed powerful cutter suction dredgers to accelerate its land reclamation — the same tools that China used in its island building.
Current length:
3 miles
Cutter suction dredgers cause extensive environmental damage by pumping out large plumes of sediment, which disrupt marine life for extended periods of time.
The seawater
ponds will most
likely be filled in
with dredged sand in the upcoming months.
Once the island is completed, the next phase will most likely involve more structures and infrastructure necessary to house a functional base of operations.
Vietnam’s Barque Canada Reef has undergone a massive transformation since the government began expanding it in 2022. This satellite image captured by Maxar Technologies on May 11 reveals the resources and techniques required for this undertaking.
Dredging of sediment has bisected the shallow coral reef in this area. It remains to be seen if Vietnam will complete a channel for vessels to pass through.
A narrow road is built out onto the reef, where land- based dredgers are able to reach out and extract sand onto trucks that transport
it back onto the island being built.
Shallow depth
lagoon waters
Among the first parts of the island to be built was this lagoon- facing harbor, along with numerous structures.
A structural
sea wall typically indicates the maximum
extent of island
building for that
particular area.
Possible artillery emplacements for troops and weapons. This type of structure can be found across many of Vietnam's more developed military outposts in the Spratlys.
June 2024
extent
built:
Ship pumping sediment through
multiple floating pipelines onto the island.
Jan. 2024
extent
built:
Cutter
suction
dredger
Vietnam has deployed powerful cutter suction dredgers to accelerate its land reclamation — the same tools that China used in its island building.
Current
length:
3 miles
The seawater
ponds will most
likely be filled in
with dredged sand in the upcoming months.
Cutter suction dredgers cause extensive environmental damage by pumping out large plumes of sediment, which disrupt marine life for extended periods of time.
Once the island is completed, the next phase will most likely involve more structures and infrastructure necessary to house a functional base of operations.
At Barque Canada, as elsewhere, Vietnam has been using powerful cutter suction dredgers to create channels and harbors for boats, and has begun construction on “coastal defense structures,” such as walled fortifications that could store artillery, said Harrison Prétat, AMTI’s deputy director. A half-dozen videos shared by Vietnam’s official government channels and reviewed by The Washington Post show cranes and excavators at the Spratly outposts working to install concrete and metal pillars for docks and piers.
How artificial islands are built
SLOWER
Land-based
technique
Clamshell dredgers are positioned on a narrow road that has been built out onto the reef. They reach into the water to dig out sediment, which is then transferred onto trucks and transported inland.
FASTER
Ship-based
technique
Cutter suction dredgers, vessels equipped with a rotating cutter head, loosen material from the seabed, which is then sucked up and pumped through floating pipes toward land.
SLOWER
Land-based
technique
Clamshell dredgers are positioned on a narrow road that has been built out onto the reef. They reach into the water to dig out sediment, which is then transferred onto trucks and transported inland.
FASTER
Ship-based
technique
Cutter suction dredgers, vessels equipped with a rotating cutter head, loosen material from the seabed, which is then sucked up and pumped through floating pipes toward land.
Clamshell dredgers are positioned on a narrow road that has been built out onto the reef. They reach into the water to dig out sediment, which is then transferred onto trucks and transported inland.
SLOWER
Land-based technique
FASTER
Ship-based technique
Cutter suction dredgers, vessels equipped with a rotating cutter head, loosen material from the seabed, which is then sucked up and pumped through floating pipes toward land.
SLOWER
Land-based technique
FASTER
Ship-based technique
Clamshell dredgers are positioned on a narrow road that has been built out onto the reef. They reach into the water to dig out sediment, which is then transferred onto trucks and transported inland.
Cutter suction dredgers, vessels equipped with
a rotating cutter head, loosen material from the seabed, which is then sucked up and pumped through floating pipes toward land.
By developing these outposts, Vietnam can deploy more ships and personnel to the Spratlys, strengthening its footprint in the disputed waters, said Ha Hoang Hop, a Hanoi-based military analyst. The outposts can also host radar and radio systems that reveal the movements of Chinese vessels, which often turn off location trackers or “go dark” in the South China Sea, said Hop.
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Vietnam is outgunned by China at sea, but the government’s aggressive island-building campaign demonstrates its commitment to defending Vietnam’s maritime features, said Zack Cooper, a senior fellow at the American Enterprise Institute. The campaign is a warning, “a loud one,” he said.
An Indonesian navy boat patrols waters in the South China Sea last year as part of exercises that also included Vietnam and four other Southeast Asian countries. China's claim to most of the sea is disputed by other nations in the region. (Bay Ismoyo/AFP/Getty Images)‘Don’t push us too hard’
In addition to its land reclamation, Vietnam has expanded its maritime militia — government-funded ships used to chase off foreign vessels — and upgraded commercial fishing ships that operate far offshore, mirroring China’s tactics to strengthen its presence at sea, say security analysts.
“What Hanoi is signaling to China is this: ‘Don’t push us too hard,’” said Huong Le Thu, an Asia-focused analyst at the International Crisis Group.
Hanoi has also enhanced security cooperation with the United States, Japan and Australia, which all upgraded ties with Vietnam over the past 10 months, primarily in response to Chinese assertiveness, according to Le Thu and other analysts studying Vietnam.
Namyit Island expansion from September 2020 to May 2024. (Sentinel 2 imagery/ESA)The United States recently transferred two Coast Guard cutters and began delivering 12 training aircraft to Vietnam as part of more than $330 million worth of security assistance and arms sales, according to State Department reports. In July, a U.S. Navy vessel paid a rare port call to Cam Ranh Bay, a strategic Vietnamese base facing the South China Sea.
Asked about Vietnam’s island building, officials at the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi declined to comment on it directly, saying more generally that they are “concerned about a change in the status quo” in the Spratlys. At the same time, officials said, the United States supports Vietnam’s defense of its sovereignty.
Vietnam shares an 800-mile land border with China, which is also its largest trading partner. Hanoi is reluctant to antagonize Beijing, but ties between the two countries have long been strained by historical enmities and, increasingly, by China’s projection of power at sea.
Sand Cay Island expansion from March 2021 to May 2024. (Sentinel 2 imagery/ESA)In the years since an international tribunal ruled in 2016 that China’s claims over the South China Sea have no legal basis, China’s presence there has only intensified, including in areas claimed by Vietnam, according to ship-tracking data. China has also deepened its security relationship with Vietnam’s neighbor Cambodia, concerning officials in Hanoi who fear being encircled by old enemies.
At the same time, China has stepped up efforts to court Vietnam. In December, President Xi visited Hanoi, signing dozens of bilateral agreements. “China and Vietnam have common ideals and convictions and enjoy a shared future,” China’s Foreign Ministry said during the visit.
The Foreign Ministry did not respond to questions for this report.
Map 1: Before and after satellite imagery of select Vietnamese islands
Map 2: Before and after satellite imagery of three Vietnamese islands
A history of tensions
The steps that Vietnam takes to “secure itself” in the South China Sea, including its island building, should not be regarded as escalatory, said Nguyen Hong Quan, a Vietnamese major general and retired official at the Ministry of Defense. “After all,” he said, “it’s China that started this.”
In 2014, China sent an oil rig 120 miles from Vietnam’s mainland, according to Vietnamese officials, deep inside what the country considers its 200-mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ). This prompted a months-long standoff that saw Chinese boats spraying Vietnamese boats with water cannons and sinking at least one Vietnamese vessel. Anti-Chinese protests across Vietnam devolved into riots, with businesses owned by Chinese people looted and burned.
More recently, there have been regular skirmishes and standoffs at sea between the two countries, Vietnamese officials said. But Vietnam and China have refrained from publicizing most of these. Chinese vessels have also continued to enter Vietnam’s EEZ, according to ship location data tracked by research groups like AMTI and the South China Sea Chronicle Initiative, a Vietnam-based think tank.
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Since 2019, China has increased patrols in areas where Vietnam has oil and gas interests and deployed what China says are research vessels in Vietnam’s waters with growing frequency, sometimes for weeks at a time. Last year, after privately pressing China to withdraw a research vessel to no avail, Vietnam publicly rebuked its neighbor. In June, Vietnam again called out the “illegal activities” of a Chinese survey vessel in its EEZ.
Philippine coast guard personnel ride past a larger Chinese coast guard vessel in March. Amid numerous confrontations between those two countries, Vietnam may have to become even more assertive in defending its claims, a retired Vietnamese defense official says. (Ezra Acayan/Getty Images)China has not dispatched ships to challenge Vietnam’s island-building efforts. But security analysts said that could change if tensions in the Spratly Islands continue to mount. “We can’t rule out the possibility of conflict … whether by accident or by design,” said Tinh, the Vietnamese official in the Foreign Affairs Ministry.
In particular, if China moves to cement its control over the Second Thomas Shoal, now the focus of a hot dispute with the Philippines, Vietnam could face domestic pressure to become even more aggressive in defending its own outposts in the Spratlys, said Quan, the retired defense official. “We’ll be forced to act,” he added.
About this story
Satellite images by Maxar Technologies and Copernicus Sentinel-2. Álvaro Valiño and Júlia Ledur contributed to this report. Editing by Alan Sipress. Photo editing by Jennifer Samuel. Graphics editing by Samuel Granados. Video editing by Zoeann Murphy. Copy editing by Jennifer Morehead.